Under such an arrangement, it is not surprising that commonalities between states are often only highlighted wherever mutual benefit exists (Jones 2015). At its formation, none of the member states had envisioned the creation of any collective community that will require them to give up parts of their sovereignty (ibid.). The lack of regional cohesion among the ASEAN member states to formulate a coordinated and coherent response against China both in the South China Sea dispute and the Lancang-Mekong hydropower dam project are further examples of how national interest continues to be prioritized over regional interest (Biba 2012). It was under such a fluid environment that the identities of pre-colonial Southeast Asians were multi-faceted and organic. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers Inc, 2002. As national interests and identities predominate in ASEAN, it is an arduous task for the generation of the kind of we-feeling that is required for the building of a regional community as articulated in the ASEAN Vision 2020. From these, it is clear that the sanctity of national sovereignty and principles of non-interference as inherited under colonial rule continues to inform diplomatic relations in the region and has become the guiding principle of ASEAN. http://www.straitstimes.com/politics/pedra-branca-icj-to-hear-malaysias-challenge-in-june, Colonialism and ASEAN Identity: Inherited mental barriers hindering the formation of a collective ASEAN identity on Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia | Center for Southeast Asian Studies Kyoto University, last reading list for Dec 2018 hipsterbabas, From the editor: The spectre of digital authoritarianism for Southeast Asia. However, as ASEAN moves into the twenty-first century, global disruptive forces have challenged the integrity and stability of ASEAN and its member states. As ASEAN risks being undermined in an increasingly volatile, uncertain and complex global environment, it needs to re-define itself and build itself into a much closer ASEAN Community of nations. Hence, even when it comes to negative effects of the Occupation on nationalist movements, these are less of a change of course, and more of a worsening of a situation already established during colonial rule. With over four hundred different ethno-religious groups, pre-colonial Southeast Asia was a kaleidoscopic world of cultural and linguistic heterogeneity (Andaya and Andaya 2015). A few constructivist interpretations have surfaced which attempt to fill this gap. Noor, Farish A. According to Karl W. Deutsch, the building of a community occurs only when a group of people develop common values to the point whereby a sense of we feeling and solidarity is shared among its members (Deutsch et al, 1957). Similar to Benedict Andersons imagined community of a nation; a regional identity can also be imagined (Anderson 1983). the grand design of European colonialism in Asia and on some of its consequences. Khoo, How San. The consequences were to benefit local rather then Japanese causes and, ironically, to contribute handsomely to the building of anti-Japanese sentiments. Britain moved into Hong Kong in 1842, into Burma in 1886, and into Kowloon in 1898. A few works by Hund (2010) and Narine (2004) have posited the persistence of a level of uncertainty among the political elites of ASEAN in their domestic political legitimacy as a key variable in their reluctance to create a unified ASEAN community and collective ASEAN identity. From its roots as an inward-looking multilateral regional arrangement, ASEAN has since expanded its geographical scope to engage with external powers in the Asia Pacific region through the creation of modalities such as the ASEAN Regional Forum in 1994, ASEAN Plus Three (China, Japan and Republic of Korea) in 1997 and East Asia Summit in 2005 (Prasetyono 2007: 109-116). Singapore: S.Rajaratnam School of International Studies, 2007. As Linklater rightly pointed out, a genuine community involves identity amongst peoples and not just states (Linklater 1990). Rather than appropriating shared elements of history, language and material culture as theirs in a nationalistic manner, Southeast Asians should embrace these heritages as a common trove of cultural treasures that is a testament to the cross-cultural hybridization and people-to-people exchange that has been occurring between them generation after generation dating back to the pre-colonial era (Noor 2016). Modesto City School. 1983. An ASEAN-wide survey carried out by Roberts in 2007 revealed a high level of trust deficit among ASEAN elites and citizens (Roberts 2007). Jones, Michael E. Forging an ASEAN Identity: The Challenge to Construct a Shared Destiny. Contemporary Southeast Asia 26, no. This became a concrete political agenda for ASEAN leaders when the ASEAN Concord II was adopted on 7 October 2003 with the aim to establish a robust ASEAN Community by 2020. These nations also opened the imperialised countries up to trade. They must be made aware of the artificiality of modern-day national boundaries and accept that elements of commonality in history, culture, ethnicity and geographies exists in the region. ASEAN shall have, by the year 2020, established a peaceful and stable Southeast Asia where each nation is at peace with itself and where the causes for conflict have been eliminated, through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law and through the strengthening of national and regional resilience. (Association of Southeast Asian Nation, 2018). In the last half of the 18th century, all the major states of Southeast Asia were faced with crisis. Early Southeast Asian subjects were extremely mobile and did not owe their allegiance to any fixed locality. Further research carried out by Christopher Roberts between 2004 and 2007 also demonstrates that a high level of distrust exists between the citizens and governments of ASEAN. Challenges for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Pacific Affairs 71, no.4 (Winter 1998-1999), 505-523. A Modern History of SoutheastAsia: Decolonization, Nationalism and Separatism. Locality in Conflict Resolution in Papua, The School and Society amid the Pandemic: A Teachers Reflection, Developing a Program for Gifted Music Students in Malaysia, Opposition Legislative Behaviour under Malaysias National Front. It prevents Southeast Asians from subscribing to multiple identities of being both a citizen of their nation and a member of the ASEAN Community. This rebellion threatened to sweep away the entire Confucian establishment of Vietnam, and perhaps would have done so if its leader had not attempted to accomplish too much too quickly. Continuity served these purposes best, and in Indochina the Japanese even allowed the French to continue to rule in return for their cooperation. Although varying in scope and intensity across the regions defective democracies and military or one-party dominated regimes, significant and worrying developments related to surveillance, data collection, censorship, misinformation, and harassment can be, This issue of Kyoto Review of Southeast Asia presents five case studies looking at foreign policy of five Southeast Asian nations: Cambodia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia and Thailand. There is no real sense of regional belonging or sentiments of we-feeling among the political elites and populace of Southeast Asia to the ASEAN Identity and the idea of ASEAN Community rarely motivate their actions (Narine 2002). Historical evidences indicate that the pre-colonial Southeast Asian possessed a worldview that did not conform to the Westphalian notion of territorial sovereignty. Explaining ASEAN: Regionalism in Southeast Asia. Mine, Yours or Ours?: The Indonesia-Malaysia Disputes over Shared Cultural Heritage. Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia 27, no. Native inhabitants of these lands were forced to put up with settlers overuse of land, animals, and natural resources across the globe. Economic stagnation. Etched in the minds of Southeast Asian is a cognitive maps that depicts the region as distinctive, neat blocks of countries each with its own history, culture, economy and politics. Motivated by a need for raw materials and new markets to sustain the industrial development of their metropoles, the European powers embarked on a series of colonizing missions between the 17th to 19th century in Southeast Asia (Christie 1996). 2 Citizens of ASEAN continue to remain largely uninterested and ignorant of the lives, culture and economy of their fellow counterparts in other member states (Heng 2015). Unintentionally, of course. Regionalism and Multilateralism: Essays on Cooperative Security in the Asia Pacific. The newer generation, however, was more certain in its opposition to colonial rule (or, in Siam, rule by the monarchy), clearer and far more political in its conception of a nation, and unabashedly determined to seize leadership and initiative in their own societies. Of particular importance were efforts to bring villages under closer state control, curb shifting patron-client relationships, and centralize and tighten the state administrative apparatus. How Indonesia sees ASEAN and the world a cursory survey of the social studies and history textbooks of Indonesia, from primary to secondary level. RSIS Working Paper no. Except in Java and much of the Philippines, the expansion of Western colonial rule in most of Southeast Asia was a phenomenon only of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries. In many areas there also was a deep-seated hatred of control by foreigners, whether they be the Europeans themselves or the Chinese, Indians, or others who were perceived as creatures of their rule. Pedra Blanca: ICJ to hear Malaysias challenge in June. The Straits Times, April 7, 2018. http://www.straitstimes.com/politics/pedra-branca-icj-to-hear-malaysias-challenge-in-june. See Wittgenstein, Ludwig. These were different in each area and some of the differences, notably between China and the rest of Asia, may be instructive as they can help us better to under-stand idiosyncratic aspects of the diverse history of modern Asia. 1 (2005): 95-118. Steinberg, David Joel. European Identities and the EU-The Ties That Bind the Peoples of Europe. Journal of Common Market Studies 42, no. India provides a cautionary tale. The 1960's national liberation movement largely ended the colonial era but the centuries of foreign control left their mark on many developing countries. The effects of colonialism should not be brushed aside or dismissed as insignificance because it is still important to how many nations handle their domestic and international policy today. 1) Modern nationalism shook the imperialism in colonies and a sense of identification with pride in the nation-state was evolved which led to the formation of national organizations to destabilize the colonial set up. The Critical Importance of Socio-cultural Community for the Future of ASEAN. In ASEAN @ 50 Volume 1, The ASEAN Journey: Reflections of ASEAN Leaders and Officials, edited by Surin Pitsuwan, Hidetoshi Nishimura, Ponciano Intal, Jr., Kavi Chongkittavorn, and Larry Maramis, 89-102. Post-Cold War diplomacy and the idea of regional community. The Pacific Review 15, no. Their works study ASEAN mainly from a functional perspective and measure the robustness of ASEAN based on the strength of its collectively held norms of non-use of force and non-intervention principles (Sharpe 2003). A genuine shared ASEAN community and collective ASEAN identity is defined in this article as a state of mind and emotions of both political elites and individual citizens in relating to their fellow counterparts both rationally and emotionally that results in them taking into account the common regional good and caring for the well-being of their fellow citizens. As ASEAN leaders recognize that geographical proximity and the ASEAN Way alone is insufficient to drive the level of regional integration required in the new era, they sought to re-define the region through the creation of an ASEAN Community with the aim of building the existing loose association of regional countries into a much closer ASEAN community of nations (Moorthy and Benny 2013). As a result of these divisive colonial policies, ethnic identities and differences were artificially accentuated which created an outlook of dichotomized, binary identities anchored by an othering mindset of Native vs. Aliens and Race vs. Race (Hirschman 1995). Lee Jun Jie Non-Traditional Security Challenges, Regional, Governance, and the ASEAN Political-Security Community (APSC). Asia Security Initiative Policy Series Working Paper no. This ideological worldview as imposed by colonialism is deeply embedded into the consciousness of Southeast Asians and continues to be perpetuated by the ruling political elites. The authors discuss the negative effect of colonialism in Southeast Asia. 3 (September 2009), 369-386. For instance, Malaysias history cannot be explained in a manner that disregards the histories of the neighboring countries of Singapore, Thailand and Indonesia. Singapore's quarrel. It will also be useful to look at the genuine social bonding and connections that exist along the border zones of places such as Southern Thailand whose inhabitants life experience are based on the ground realities of cross-border (Thailand and Malaysia) commerce, migration, settlement and marriages (Noor 2017, 9-15). In the mental map of Southeast Asians, the lines of division that had been drawn in the boardrooms of the colonial companies have become both a political and social reality. Recent developments in Southeast Asia, particularly in India, Japan, and Hong Kong, tell volumes about this project. However, the responses from the regions elite were the most disconcerting. 5 Differences rather than commonality now preoccupy the minds of Southeast Asian as they seek to define their own identity. Under such a shared, borderless geographical space, different ethnic groups and polities intersected and commingled to create extensive, regularized patterns of interactions. This may explain why the collective ASEAN Identity as envisioned remains vague and poorly defined despite the repeated rhetoric of solidarity and cooperation in the official statements of ASEANs political elites (Jones 2004). Khoo further argues that ASEAN continues to be an , that is still far off from the ASEAN Community it envisions (Khoo 2000). 7. Any memory of pre-colonial affinities and common past that could have served as the foundation of a regional identity have also been erased. Spain had seized the Philippines in the 1500s. The revolts, and the economic disarray of the Great Depression, also suggested that European rule was neither invulnerable nor without flaws. Imperialism affected imperialised peoples in both positive and negative ways. Southeast AsiaSocial conditions20th century. A political vocabulary underpinned by the logics of geopolitical division, territoriality, ethnic-cultural differences and national interest became the dominant language of governmentality in the region. Evidence of these pre-colonial relationships can be observed in the recurring cultural wars in which cultural icons, artefacts, and cuisines are frequently contested and claimed by multiple nation-states. See South China Sea dispute; Malaysia-Singapore dispute over the Pedra Blanca/Pulau Batu Puteh; Malaysia-Indonesia dispute over the Sipadan and Litigan Islands.Jones and Smith (2002) would not have continued to dismiss ASEAN community as an imitation community with no substance. Vietnam-Japan Relations under the Abe Administration It also caused problems with the motherland. London: Tauris Academic Studies, 1996. Impacts. At least since the Crusades and the conquest of the Americas, political theorists have used theories of justice, contract, and natural law to both criticize and justify European domination. Sim, Royston. Even though early Southeast Asian most probably did not share a sense of solidarity as a collective community, it would be safe to say that they would have perceived themselves as fellow inhabitants of a common world. Most literature focuses on the security and economic dimension of ASEAN, which despite its importance, is inadequate in the discussion of a formation of a genuine regional community anchored on a collective identity. Boulder: Westview Press, 1995. In short, the Western-educated elite emerged from the Japanese occupation stronger in various ways than they had ever been. There is perhaps a reason for this. It was a living reality for each individual Southeast Asian living in the pre-colonial era to possess multiple identities and having a sense of belonging that was not solely determined by ones place of birth (Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia 2014: 209-231). Southeast Asia's New Nationalism: Causes and Significance - Volume 1 Issue 2. . Asia Before Europe: Economy and Civilisation of the Indian Ocean from the Rise of Islam to 1750. The country's postcolonial rulers seized the advantages left them by the British empire and used them, for the most part, for the benefit of wider society. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2006. It will follow McMillan and Chaviss definition of a sense of community as a feeling that members have of belonging, a feeling that members matter to one another and to the group, and a shared faith that members needs will be met through their commitment to be together and Henri Tajfels definition of identity as part of an individuals self-concept which derives from his knowledge of his membership in a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership (McMillan and Chavis 1986; Tajfel 1981). A revamp of history education in the region is critical in such a venture. 3 (2004): 573598. _____________. Modernization appeared to require such an approach, and the Thai did not hesitate to embrace it with enthusiasm. Khoo further argues that ASEAN continues to be an intergovernmental neighbourhood watch group that is still far off from the ASEAN Community it envisions (Khoo 2000). The colonial rulers proceeded to alter the epistemology and discourse of statecraft and international relations in Southeast Asia. South East Asia Research, 18(1), 5-31. 1 (Summer 2007): 148-184. Chinese Influence Contested in Southeast Asia: Domestic Political Economy Matters. Thus, they generally cast doubts for any sovereign states to be genuinely interested in the building of a shared community that is anchored on we-feelings. In search of Southeast Asia: a modern history. It is perceived that only through the presence of a collective ASEAN identity would the region move beyond mere institutional integration and imbue a genuine sense of regional belonging and common destiny that will bring to fruition the aspirations as spelt out in the ASEAN Charter. Thirdly, the management of intra-regional relations continues to pose a challenge to the cohesiveness of ASEAN. As a result, Southeast Asians began to associate themselves economically, socially and cultural more with their respective Europe metropoles than with their regional neighbours (Roberts 2011). Nation Branding in Post-Coup Thailand: A Strategy for Political Legitimation? Moorthy, Ravichandran and Guido Benny. Japanese-Thai Relations through Two Coups: Back to Business From the 1500s to the mid-1940s, colonialism was imposed over Southeast Asia. A history of early modern Southeast Asia, 1400-1800. Oba, Mie. Before the discovery of America and the sea route to Asia, the Mediterranean had been the trading and naval centre of Europe and the Near East.Italian seamen were rightly considered to be the best, and they commanded the first royally sponsored transatlantic expeditionsColumbus for Spain, John Cabot for England, and Giovanni da Verrazano for France. Often dismissed as pseudo-intellectuals by the Western colonial governments and prevented from obtaining any real stake in the state, the new intellectuals under the Japanese were accorded positions of real (though not unlimited or unsupervised) authority. _____________. In the economic sphere impact also the western imperialism had a mixed impact. Farish Noor puts it succinctly: Herein lies the fundamental existential challenge of ASEAN: making ASEAN deeply felt (we-feeling) and deeply owned (ours-feeling) by ASEAN peoples who have a deep sense of ASEAN commonality (we are in this together). (Noor 2015). _____________. Recognizing the instrumental role of former Japanese Prime Minster Shinzo Abe for both the establishment of the Indo-Pacific as a geopolitical concept and the development of Japanese-Southeast Asian relations, the essays in this special issue investigate the legacy of his government for the future of the region. Consider the effect of Western (and in particular European) colonialism. To ease this process, different ethnicities were forcefully amalgamated together into convenient, methodical racial categories. The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is the main regional organization in Southeast Asia. Over time, multiple networks of inter-related, mutually dependent communities were formed across the region with numerous linkages of affinities forged through maritime trade, migration and intermarriages that cuts across ethnic, cultural and political affiliations (ibid.). Caballero-Anthony, Mely. In conclusion, the effects of colonialism in Southeast Asia were complex and varied, and have had a lasting impact on the region. There was clearly little clinging to Japanese concepts except where they could be thoroughly indigenized; even the collaboration issue, so important to Europeans and their thinking about the immediate postwar era, failed to move Southeast Asians for long. 1 (2002): 93-109. The French colonisation of Vietnam began in earnest in the 1880s and lasted six decades. Southeast Asia in search of an ASEAN Community. 2. Jeevan Vasagar. _____________. Regional integration is therefore mainly seen as a mean to allow the nation-state of Southeast Asia to obtain political and economic objectives that it is unable to achieve alone (Kim 2011). Azmawati, Dian and Linda Quayle. Colonialism is a practice of domination, which involves the subjugation of one people to another. As such, a ground-up approach may offer greater prospects in the creation of a collective regional identity and go a long way in helping to develop a shared sense of belonging that transcends national boundaries. Those included the 20th-century mandates of Lebanon and Syria, and more especially the key colony of French Indochina what is now Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. in Burma/Myanmar. The former colonial masters continued to impose economic, political, cultural and other pressures to control or influence their former colonies. Instead, they regard their Bajau homeland as one that extends far from the Sulawesi Sea to the Palawan of the Philippines and continue to reside and ply their trade across these waters (Morgan 2018). Only through such efforts will there be greater understanding, awareness and appreciation of the regions interconnectedness that will aid the people of ASEAN in shedding their mental barriers of exclusive national identities and develop a sentiment of common belonging and shared destiny. Shared Cultures and Shared Geography: Can There Ever Be a Sense of Common ASEAN Identity and Awareness? ERIA Discussion Paper Series, Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia, November 2015. Abstract. Hooghe, Liesbet and Gary Marks. They were backed by the enormous economic resources of the industrialized Western nations, and by the early 20th century, having effectively disarmed the indigenous societies, they possessed a monopoly on the means of violence. Consequently, an unsatisfactory rejection on the possibility of the formation of a genuine ASEAN community is often made. Tan, Chee-Beng. Imagined community: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. Aguilar Jr, Filomeno. These dialectics have assisted the regions political elite in their repeated attempts at playing up national sentiments against neighbouring countries in order to galvanize its populace for political gains. In September of 1954, the United States, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Australia, the Philippines, Thailand and Pakistan formed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, or SEATO. Trauma and History: Accepting Complexity in the Past and the Present. In Trauma, Memory and Transformation: Southeast Asian Experiences, edited by Sharon A. Bong. How do we explain ASEAN then? Hikayat Hang Tuah. The political boundaries as delineated and determined by colonial powers remains jealously guarded and maintained by the post-independence political elites. 1. Siam, which through a combination of circumstance and the wise leadership of Mongkut (ruled 185168) and Chulalongkorn (18681910) avoided Western rule, nevertheless was compelled to adopt policies similar to, and often even modeled on, those of the colonial powers in order to survive. Originally established as a loose regional framework for confidence building between leaders of the nascent nation-states in Southeast Asia and a mechanism to manage the influence of superpowers in the region, ASEAN has developed over the years to become the primary diplomatic platform for Southeast Asian states to discuss regional political and security cooperation and have further expanded its focus in recent years to include economic and social integration (Vatikiotis 1999). Integration into the global economy. At the heart of the debate however lies, The year 2020, when this project was initiated, provided a unique opportunity for reflection on critical milestones in Myanmars recent history: it marked a decade since the initiation of political, economic, and peace transitions, as well as five years since the National League for Democracy (NLD) took control of the civilian government in an ad hoc. The Evolution and Limitations of ASEAN Identity. In ASEAN @ 50 Volume 4, Building ASEAN Community: Political-Security and Socio-cultural Reflections, edited by Aileen Baviera and Larry Maramis, 25-38. They were unable, however, to avoid other concomitants of state expansion and modernization. In reality, French colonialism was chiefly driven by economic interests. Hoang Minh Hang, Senior Researcher, Institute of Northeast Asian Studies, Vietnam Academy of Social Sciences, Vietnam, The Fantasy of Homogenous Time: When the Cold War Never Existed and Thailand Fought for Vietnams Independence, Same Same only Different: Reflections on the Squandering of American Power and Prestige, From Social Regulation to Social Movements: International network in organizing the ALTERSEA Conference, A Counter-Peace Perspective on Thailands Southern Conflict, Transgender Studies in the Kathoeis Community, Brazils Quadruple Crisis And Why It Matters For Southeast Asia, Hindering Democratization: Thailands Well-Traveled Trojan Horse, The State of Creative Activism in Post-Cold War Southeast Asia and the 2021 Myanmar Crisis, Through Thick and Thin: The Solidarity of the Crown and Capitalists in the Face of Thai Protests, Vietnams COVID-19 Success Story: From Low-Cost to High-Flexibility Strategy, Calls from Professionals for a Digital Culture Policy in Vietnam, Lawfare Strategy of the National Unity Government of Myanmar, A question of agency: Southeast Asia and AUKUS Being stuck in the middle does not mean ASEAN Centrality. Economic Impact. It argues First of all, the integration of ASEAN economies with the wider Asia-Pacific region has exposed the region to the negative effects of globalization which are keenly felt by all member states. While these measures contributed to a greater sense of commonality and collective identity within the colonial states and allow its inhabitants to imagine themselves as part of an imagined community, they were confined within the boundaries drawn-up by their colonial masters. A Collection of Statutes Relating to the East India Company. 3 (July 2011): 365-382. Henceforth, national identities are framed in the context of oppositional dialectics which highlights the uniqueness of their nation-states vis--vis their external neighbors; a case of us versus them (Noor 2015). There is no mistaking the impact of Western colonial governments on their surroundings, and nowhere is this more evident than in the economic sphere. Colonialism also introduced modern medicine and education to many regions of the globe. A few leaders perhaps had been naive enough to think that it mightand some others clearly admired the Japanese and found it acceptable to work with thembut on the whole the attitude of intellectuals was one of caution and, very quickly, realization that they were now confronted with another, perhaps more formidable and ferocious, version of colonial rule. While colonialism brought some positive changes, such as the introduction of new ideas and technologies, it also had negative consequences, such as economic inequality and political instability. Thus, as aptly described by Jones and Smith, ASEAN remains largely an imitation community that are rhetorical shells and provides form but no substance to genuine regional integration (Jones and Smith 2002). Asean and East Asia Research, 18 ( 1 ), 505-523 racial categories can also be imagined ( 1983... 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To fill this gap political, cultural and other pressures to control or Influence their former colonies in! Subjects were extremely mobile and did not conform to the East India Company Institute of Asian... Be imagined ( Anderson 1983 ) Great Depression, also suggested that European rule was invulnerable... With crisis peoples and not just states ( Linklater 1990 ) from subscribing multiple! A Shared Destiny volumes about this project of their nation and a member of the Great Depression, also that! Resources across the globe in trauma, memory and Transformation: Southeast Asian Experiences, edited by A.... ( Association of Southeast Asia: Domestic political Economy Matters the grand design of European colonialism in Asia on. Community for the Future of ASEAN under such a venture control or Influence former! As delineated and determined by colonial powers remains jealously guarded and maintained by the post-independence political.... The major states of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) is the main organization.

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